Women and Birth
Volume 20, Issue 4 , Pages 161-168 , December 2007

Why do women continue to smoke in pregnancy?

Received 5 March 2007 ,Revised 7 August 2007 ,Accepted 18 August 2007.

References 

  1. Encarta. World English Dictionary. Microsoft; 2007.
  2. CDC. National Center for Disease Control and Prevention. National Health Interview Survey (NHIS): Glossary of Terms; 2007.
  3. Laws P, Grayson N, Sullivan E. Smoking and pregnancy. Sydney: AIHW National Perinatal Statistics Unit; 2006;
  4. WHO. The European Health report 2002. Denmark: World health Organisation; 2002.
  5. Ridolfo B, Stevenson C. Quanitfication of drug-caused mortality and morbidity in Australia, 1998. Caberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare; 2001;
  6. National Tobacco Strategy, 2004–2009. The Strategy. Brisbane: Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy; 2004.
  7. Smoking Cessation Guidelines For Australian General Practice: practice handbook. Department of Health and Aging; 2004.
  8. Rumsey S. How to find information a guide for researchers. New York: Open University Press; 2004;
  9. Windsor R, Boyd N, Orleans CT. A meta-evaluation of smoking cessation intervention research among pregnant women: improving the science and art. Health Educ Res. 1998;13(3):419–438
  10. Dolan-Mullen P, Ramirez G, Groff J. Obstetrics: a meta-analysis of randomized trials of prenatal smoking cessation interventions. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994;171(5):1328–1334
  11. Lumley J, Oliver S, Waters E. Interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library Issue 4 1999.
  12. Wakefield M, Jones W. Effects of a smoking cessation program for pregnant women and their partners attending a public hospital antenatal clinic. Aust N Z J Public Health. 1998;22(3):313–320
  13. Valanis B, Lichtenstein E, Mullooly J, Labuhn K, Brody K, Severson H, et al. Maternal smoking cessation and relapse prevention during health care visits. Am J Prev Med. 2001;20(1):1–8
  14. Pbert L, Ockene JK, Zapka J, Ma Y, Goins KV, Oncken C, et al. A community health center smoking-cessation intervention for pregnant and postpartum women. Am J Prev Med. 2004;26(5):377–385
  15. McLeod D, Pullon S, Benn C, Cookson T, Dowell A, Viccars A, et al. Can support and education for smoking cessation and reduction be provided effectively by midwives within primary maternity care?. Midwifery. 2004;20(1):37–50
  16. Tappin D, Lumsden MA, Gilmour WH, Crawford F, McIntyre D, Stone DH, et al. Randomised controlled trial of home based motivational interviewing by midwives to help pregnant smokers quit or cut down. Br Med J. 2005;331(7513):373–377
  17. Hotham ED, Gilbert AL, Atkinson ER. A randomised-controlled pilot study using nicotine patches with pregnant women. Addict Behav. 2006;31(4):641–648
  18. Ferreira-Borges C. Effectiveness of a brief counseling and behavioral intervention for smoking cessation in pregnant women. Prev Med. 2005;41(1):295–302
  19. Lumley J, Oliver S, Chamberlain C, Oakley L. Interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004(4): Art. No.: CD001055, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001055.pub2.
  20. Walsh R, Redman S, Brinsmead M, Byrne J, Melmeth A. A smoking cessation program at a public antenatal clinic. Am J Public Health. 1997;87(7):1201
  21. Donatelle R, Prows S, Champeau D, Hudson D. Randomised controlled trials using social support and financial incentives for high risk pregnant smokers: Significant Other Supporter (SOS) Program. Tobacco Control. 2000;9(Suppl. 3):iii67–iii69
  22. Moore L, Campbell R, Whelan A, Mills N, Lupton P, Misselbrook E, et al. Self-help smoking cessation in pregnancy: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2002;325(7377):1383
  23. Bakker M. Pregnancy: a window of opportunity to quit smoking! The development, implementation and evaluation of a minimal intervention strategy for pregnant women and partners. Netherlands: Maastricht Health Research Institute for Prevention and Care; 2001;
  24. Dunkley J. Training midwives to help pregnant women stop smoking. Nurs Times. 1997;93(5):64–66
  25. Ershoff D, Quinn V, Boyd N, Stern G, Gregory M, Wirschafter D. The Kaiser Permente prenatal smoking cessation trial. When more isn’t better, what is enough?. Am J Prev Med. 1999;17(3):161–168
  26. Hajek P, West R, Lee A, Foulds J, Owen L, Eiser J, et al. Randomized controlled trial of a midwife-delivered brief smoking cessation intervention in pregnancy. Addiction. 2001;96(3):485–494
  27. Hughes E, Lamont D, Beecroft M, Wilson D. Randomised trial of a “stage of change” orientated smoking cessation intervention for subfertile and pregnant patients. Fertil Steril. 2000;74(3):498–503
  28. Kendrick L, Metzger R, Sexton M, Spierto F, Floyd R, Gargiullo P. Integrating smoking cessation into routine public prenatal care: the Smoking Cessation in Pregnancy project. Am J Public Health. 1995;85:217–222
  29. Lowe J, Balanda K, Clare G. Evaluation of antenatal smoking cessation programs for pregnant women. Aust N Z J Public Health. 1998;22(1):55–59
  30. Tappin D, Lumsden M, McIntyre D, Mckay C, Gilmour W, Webber R, et al. A pilot study to establish a randomized trial methodology to test the efficacy of a behavioural intervention. Health Educ Res. 2000;15(4):491–502
  31. Manfredi C, Crittenden K, Warnecke R, Engler J, Cho Y, Shaligram C. Evaluation of a motivational smoking cessation intervention for women in public health clinics. Prev Med. 2000;28:51–60
  32. McBride C, Curry S, Lando H, Pirie P, Grothaus L, Nelson J. Prevention of relapse in women who quit smoking during pregnancy. Am J Public Health. 1999;89:706–711
  33. Stotts S, Diclemente C, Dolan-Mullen P. One-to-one: a motivational intervention for resistant pregnant smokers. Addict Behav. 2002;27:275–292
  34. Thornton L. Smoking and pregnancy feasibility and effectiveness of a smoking intervention programme among pregnant women. Dublin: Department of Public Health; 1997;
  35. Stotts AL, DiClemente CC, Carbonari JP, Mullen PD. Postpartum return to smoking: staging a “suspended” behavior. Health Psychol. 2000;19(4):315–323[Article]
  36. Stotts AL, Diclemente CC, Carbonari JP, Mullen PD. Pregnancy smoking cessation: a case of mistaken identity. Addict Behav. 1996;21(4):459–471
  37. Hegaard H, Kjaergaard H, Moller L, Wachmann H, Ottesen B. Multimodal intervention raises smoking cessation rate during pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2003;82(9):813
  38. Oncken C, Hatsukama D, Luop V, Lando H, Gibeau L, Hansen B. Effects of short-term nicotine gum use in pregnant smokers. J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1996;59:654–661
  39. Oncken C, Hardardottir H, Hatsukami D, Lupo V, Rodis J, Smeltzer J. Effects of transdermal nicotine or smoking on nicotine concentrations and maternal-fetal hemodynamics. Obstet Gynecol. 1997;90:569–574
  40. McCurry N, Thompson K, Parahoo K, O’Doherty E, Doherty A. Pregnant women's perception of the implementation of smoking cessation advice. Health Educ J. 2002;61(1):20–31
  41. National Tobacco Strategy 1999 to 2002–03. A framework for action. Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy; 1999.
  42. Pickett K, Wakschlag L, Lanting D, Bennett L. Fluctuations of maternal smoking during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;101(1):140–147[Article]
  43. Carmichael S, Ahluwalia I, Group PW. Correlates of postpartum smoking relapse results from the pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system (PRAMS). Am J Prev Med. 2000;19(3):193–195
  44. Ma Y, Goins K, Pbert L, Ockene J. Predictors of smoking cessation in pregnancy and maintenance postpartum in low-income women. Matern Child Health J. 2005;9(4):
  45. Paterson J, Neimanis I, Bain E. Stopping smoking during pregnancy. Can J Public Health. 2003;94(4):297
  46. Hakansson A, Lendahls L, Petersson C. Which women stop smoking?. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 1999;78(3):217
  47. Lawrence T, Aveyard P, Cheng KK, Griffin C, Johnson C, Croghan E. Does stage-based smoking cessation advice in pregnancy result in long-term quitters? 18-month postpartum follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Addiction. 2005;100(1):107–116
  48. Siahpush M. Socioeconomic status and tobacco expenditure among Australian households: results from the 1998–99 Household Expenditure Survey. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2003;57(10):798–801
  49. Greaves L, Vallone D, Velicer W. Special effects: tobacco policies and low socioeconomic status girls and women. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2006;60(Suppl. 2):ii1–ii2doi:10.1136/jech.2006.052480
  50. Abrahamsson A, Ejlertsson G. Smoking patterns during pregnancy: differences in socioeconomic and health-related variables. Eur J Public Health. 2000;10(3):208–213doi:10.1093/eurpub/10.3.208
  51. Arnold C, Davis T, Berkel H, Jackson R, Nandy I, London S. Smoking status, reading level, and knowledge of tobacco effects among low-income pregnant women. Prev Med. 2001;32(4):313–320
  52. Graham H. Gender and class as dimensions of smoking behaviour in Britain: insights from a survey of mothers. Social Sci Med. 1994;38(5):691–698
  53. Graham H, Der G. Influences on women's smoking status: the contribution of socioeconomic status in adolescence and adulthood. Eur J Public Health. 1999;9(2):137–141doi:10.1093/eurpub/9.2.137
  54. Graham H, Francis B, Inskip HM, Harman J SWS Study Group. Socioeconomic lifecourse influences on women's smoking status in early adulthood. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2006;60(3):228–233doi:10.1136/jech.2005.039784
  55. Graham H, Inskip HM, Francis B, Harman J. Pathways of disadvantage and smoking careers: evidence and policy implications. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2006;60(Suppl. 2):ii7–ii12doi:10.1136/jech.2005.045583
  56. Harman J, Graham H, Francis B, Inskip HM. Socioeconomic gradients in smoking among young women: a British survey. Social Sci Med. 2006;63(11):2791–2800
  57. Jun H-J, Subramanian SV, Gortmaker S, Kawachi I. Socioeconomic disadvantage, parenting responsibility, and women's smoking in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2004;94(12):2170
  58. Khang Y-H, Cho H-J. Socioeconomic inequality in cigarette smoking: trends by gender, age, and socioeconomic position in South Korea, 1989–2003. Prev Med. 2006;42(6):415–422
  59. Kim H, Clark PI. Cigarette smoking transition in females of low socioeconomic status: impact of state, school, and individual factors. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2006;60(Suppl. 2):ii13–ii19doi:10.1136/jech.2005.045658
  60. Najman J, Lanyon A, Andersen M, Williams G, Bor W, O’Callaghan M. Socioeconomic status and maternal cigarette smoking before, during and after a pregnancy. Aust NZ J Public Health. 1998;22(1):60
  61. Lindqvist R, Ãberg H. Who stops smoking during pregnancy?. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2001;80(2):137
  62. Siahpush M, Borland R, Scollo M. Factors associated with smoking cessation in a national sample of Australians. Nicotine Tob Res. 2003;5(4):597–602
  63. Wilkinson R, Marmot M. Social determinants of health the solid facts. 2nd ed.. Copenhagen: World Health Organisation Library; 2003;
  64. Pletsch PK, Kratz AT. Why do women stop smoking during pregnancy? Cigarettes taste and smell bad. Health Care Women Int. 2004;25(7):671–679
  65. Siahpush M. Why is lone-motherhood so strongly associated with smoking?. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2004;28(1):37–42
  66. Lu Y, Tong S, Oldenburg B. Determinants of smoking and cessation during and after pregnancy. Health Promot Int. 2001;16(4):355–365
  67. Haslam C, Lawrence W. Health-related behavior and beliefs of pregnant smokers. Health Psychology. 2004;23(5):486–491[Article]
  68. Najdawi F, Faouri M. Maternal smoking and breastfeeding. East Mediterr Health J. 1999;5(3):450–456
  69. Lendahls L, Öhman L, Liljestrand J, Håkansson A. Women's experiences of smoking during and after pregnancy as ascertained two to three years after birth. Midwifery. 2002;18(3):214–222
  70. Irwin L, Johnson J, Bottorff J. Mothers who smoke: confessions and justifications. Health Care Women Int. 2005;26(7):577–590
  71. Stillman S. Smoking and quitting smoking: crucial issues for women. Aust J Primary Health Interchange. 1998;4(3):
  72. Severson H, Andrews J, Lichtenstein E, Wall M, Akers L. Reducing maternal smoking and relapse: long-term evaluation of a pediatric intervention. Prev Med. 1997;26(1):120–130
  73. Van’t Hof S, Wall M, Dowler D, Stark M. Randomised controlled trial of a postpartum relapse prevention intervention. Tob Control. 2000;9(Suppl. 3):11164–11166
  74. Pletsch P, Morgan S, Pieper A. Context and beliefs about smoking and smoking cessation. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs. 2003;28(5):320–325[Article]
  75. Isohanni M, Oja H, Moilanen I, Koiranen M, Rantakallio P. Smoking or quitting during pregnancy: associations with background and future social factors. Scand J Social Med. 1995;23(1):
  76. Munafo M, Drury M, Wakley G, Chambers R, Murphy M. Smoking cessation matters in primary care. Abingdon: Radcliffe Medical Press; 2003;
  77. Lowinson J, Ruiz P, Millman R, Langrod J. Substance abuse: a comprehensive textbook. fourth ed.. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005;
  78. Orleans C, Slade J. Nicotine addiction: principles and management. New York: Oxford University Press; 1993;
  79. Sterling P. Principles of allostasis: optimal design, predictive regulation, pathophysiology and rational therapeutics. In:  Schulkin J editors. Allostasis, homeostasis, and the costs of adaptation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2004;
  80. Nieoullon A, Coqueral A. Dopamine: a key regulator to adapt action, emotion, motivation and cognition. Curr Opin Neurol. 2003;16(Suppl. 2):23–29
  81. Schmidt S. Nicotine addiction. J Addict Nurs. 2004;15(2):15
  82. Bottorff J, Kalaw C, Johnson J, Stewart M, Greaves L. Tobacco use in intimate spaces: issues in the study of couple dynamics. Qual Res. 2005;15(4):564–577
  83. Woodby L, Windsor R, Snyder S, Kohler C, Diclemente C. Predictors of smoking cessation during pregnancy. Addiction. 1999;94(2):283–292
  84. Gilbert E. Contextualising the medical risks of cigarette smoking: Australian young women's perceptions of anti-smoking campaigns. Health Risk Soc. 2005;7(3):227–245
  85. Graham H. Women's smoking and family health. Social Sci Med. 1987;25(1):47–56
  86. Graham H. Women's smoking: government targets and social trends. Health Visitor. 1993;66(3):80–82
  87. Gagne E, Yekovich C, Yekovich F. The cognitive psychology of school learning. 2nd ed.. New York: Harper-Collins; 1993;
  88. Coleman T. Use of simple advice and behavioural support. Br Med J. 2004;328:397–399
  89. Ussher M, West R, Hibbs N. A survey of pregnant smokers’ interest in different types of smoking cessation support. Patient Educ Counsel. 2004;54(1):67–72
  90. May S, West R. Do social support interventions (“buddy systems”) aid smoking cessation? A review. Tob Control. 2000;9(4):415–422doi:10.1136/tc.9.4.415
  91. Butler C, Pill R, Stott N. Qualitative study of patients’ perceptions of doctors’ advice to quit smoking: implications for opportunistic health promotion. Br Med J. 1998;316:1878–1881
  92. Fahy K. Marginalised mothers: transition to motherhood and the experience of disciplinary power. Ph.D. dissertation. The University of Queensland; 1996.
  93. McBride C, Emmons K, Lipkus I. Understanding the potential of teachable moments: the case of smoking cessation. Health Educ Res. 2003;18(2):156–170
  94. Griffiths A, Woolley J, Avasarala S, Roy M, Wiener J. . Survey of antenatal women's knowledge of maternal and fetal risks of tobacco smoking and acceptability of nicotine replacement products in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2005;25(5):432–434
  95. National Health and Medical Research Council . How to assess the evidence: assessment and application of scientific evidence. Canberra: NHMRC. Commonwealth of Australia; 2000;

PII: S1871-5192(07)00092-3

doi: 10.1016/j.wombi.2007.08.002

Women and Birth
Volume 20, Issue 4 , Pages 161-168 , December 2007